85 and disposal (di Risio, 2017). Due to inhalation of crystalline silica dust, many citizens are at high risk of developing various lung diseases— silicosis, fibrosis, and cancer. In October 2018, the UN warned Argentina to take precautions to minimize health and economic risks for the Mapuche people, a warning that should go beyond the indigenous population (Center for International Environmental Law, 2018). A 2020 summary of international studies identified a series of additional adverse health effects resulting fromunconventional oil andgas (UOG) extraction. The most commonly found effects were low birth weights, preterm births, and congenital deformities, but other ailments, such as sexually transmitted infections, traffic incidents, asthma exacerbations, and cancer, also were examined. Multiple studies reported that living in an area with higher UOG extraction well density resulted in lower birth weights and hypothesized that this could be due to fetuses being affected by a variety of pollutants. Other studies reported an increased association between UOG extraction development and the number of preterm deliveries and evaluated associations with congenital malformations. Collectively, these adverse pregnancy outcomes point to a growing association between UOG extraction and adverse health effects (Deziel et al., 2020). The Argentine government needs to enforce the environmental protection laws already in place, while at the same time it should enact more stringent laws and regulations to keep oil and gas companies from violating the social status quo and health of the people. Workers need proper personal protective equipment to prevent medical conditions from developing or worsening. Medical care should be readily available to locals and workers who are victims of accidents or long-term chronic conditions caused by living near the wells. Working at night on a well without adequate lighting is dangerous, and this practice needs to be made illegal. Labor laws should be strictly enforced, and unions should not be ignored. Well placement needs to have a group of local leaders interacting with oil and gas companies on where the wells can be placed. While fracking in Argentina is only a decade old, the UOG extraction health studies (many of which were conducted in the US) foreshadow a bleak future for Argentina in the absence of any protective legislation. Without a body governing where wells can be placed, natural areas will continue to be destroyed, and the Mapuche will have their land desecrated. Fortunately, an organization exists, which if appropriately collaborated with, could provide guidance to the government on both environmental and social issues relative to well placement and human health issues. The Multisectorial contra la Hidrofractura, a group of political activists composed of indigenous people and a mix of other social groups that are against fracking, has been an integral part of the fracking debate, and the organization has brought together groups of people who otherwise would have been socially divided (Riffo, 2017). Spurred by this group, blockades and protests have become common in the indigenous communities to help prevent oil and gas companies from stealing more of their land. Policy makers and regulators should listen to the Multisectorial contra la Hidrofractura and work alongside the group to develop and enforce an appropriate regulatory framework for the oil and gas industry. Conclusion Argentina has hoped that the oil and gas reserves of Vaca Muerta would contribute to a new prosperity for the country. To date, the country has not benefited from having spent billions of dollars on subsidies for Vaca Muerta. The subsidies had good intent, but they were overutilized. In the short term, the expensive extraction of oil and gas has been further constrained by the COVID-19 pandemic in conjunction with the collapse of the Argentine economy. Longer term, as renewable resources technology becomes stronger, it is worth questioning whether the current effort to extract more gas and oil will be beneficial. Only with more appropriate utilization of subsidies and an expanding share of the international market would it be economically advantageous for Argentina to extend the project in the long term. As Argentina considers the long-term economic possibilities of expanded oil and gas extraction, it also must take into account the
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