58 PERSPECTIVES ON BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS | VOL 42 | 2024 (Bouiamrine et al., 2017). An example is Anacyclus pyrethrum, the Atlas daisy, for joint pain, indigestion, diabetes, rheumatism, and Alzheimer’s disease (Zahra Jawhari et al., 2021). This herbaceous plant is listed as vulnerable to extinction because of “ruthless collection for domestic uses and for trade, collection practices, overgrazing, agricultural intensification, deforestation and soil erosion” (Rankou et al., 2015, p. 506). It has a severely fragmented population, and the number of mature plants is also rapidly declining. Habitat fragmentation leads to likelihood of population loss due to lower reproduction rates (Lienert, 2004). This is but one example of a plant that plays an important role in medicine for rural Morocco and is declining due to exploitation and unsustainable harvesting practices. An example of an endangered aromatic plant that is highly treasured in Morocco is Sideroxylon spinosum, the argan tree, which produces oil for cooking and for cosmetics and medicine, with dermatologic benefits and cholesterol-reducing properties (Heuzé & Tran, 2020). This tree is currently cultivated to meet demands, but wild argan is endangered by overgrazing and overexploitation, resulting in a density drop from 100 to 30 trees per hectare from 2000 to 2017 (Green Climate Fund, 2023). At the beginning of 2024, the market size of cultivated and wild argan oil in Morocco was recorded at $290.3M and is projected to reach $600.8M by 2031 (Verified Market Research, 2024; Ismaili et al., 2017). Due to the reduction in wild Sideroxylon spinosum and its importance to the national economy, the Moroccan government initiated a rehabilitation project through the Green Climate Fund that plans to plant about 43,000 hectares of argan trees (Green Climate Fund, 2023). This project is intended to not only promote sustainable agriculture but also support co-ops of women who rely on arganiculture in rural communities. Despite this effort, the wild argan population is still severely fragmented and declining. Solutions The MAPs industry harbors several significant problems that need to be addressed. These include identifying sustainable harvesting practices and implementing them in communities, establishing cooperative organizations to support plant harvesting and processing in indigenous communities to ensure their fair share of profits, and finally, a national plan for managing the public lands where most foraging occurs. Introducing sustainable harvesting practices Growing demand is threatening endemic species, but by shifting how plants are harvested, the reproduction potential, survival, and quality of plants can increase. Ismaili et al. (2017) studied sustainable practices in Morocco to prevent the overharvesting of Rosmarinus officinalis, also known as rosemary. The study examined how to best avoid overharvesting and sought to improve quality by maximizing essential oil quantity and leaf biomass production with different harvesting practices. These practices included the cutting method and adjusting the season of harvest. The study authors hypothesized that different combinations of these two factors would result in more productive collections. They found that changing harvesting practices based on time of year would allow for optimal plant growth and essential oil production. Spring showed the highest essential oil yield when clear-cutting was practiced (the act of cutting the entire plant but leaving roots intact). It was advised to not harvest in summer because of negative effects on essential oil production and growth. Harvesting only half the plants in the fall would let the remaining rosemary plants flower at the end of the fall to ensure seed production and pollinator attraction, and they suggested the plants should be clear-cut again in winter to allow for full regeneration. The results of this study suggest that the methods of foraging plants should be planned according to their growth habits and that it is detrimental to harvest without this information. These harvesting methods demonstrate success limited to rosemary, but they can be applied to other plants. A suggested technique of conservation is identifying the plants at highest risk of exploitation and running similar experiments to test the best harvesting practices. Plants that are in the same genus should show similar characteristics; thus, results can be applied across multiple species without running excessive experiments. To prevent overharvesting and promote conservation, it is critical that those harvesting these plants understand how to harvest in a sustainable manner. This type of research is conducted by universities, including the National Forestry School of Engineers and Mohammed V University, that assisted with the Ismaili et al. study and with partnerships in government organizations, such as the Department of Soil and Water Biodiversity. These projects are funded by both private and public partners; most recently, the World Bank allotted $300M for scientific research to Moroccan universities. This loan intends to support higher education and is primarily for research in Morocco’s
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