41 MARTINDALE CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE that create unsustainable production costs of up to $9/m3 of water (Karagiannis & Soldatos, 2008). Under more reasonable energy consumption levels, the overall cost of desalination remains a concern. For instance, a large percentage of treated desalination water is for agricultural irrigation. The irrigation of common grain crops, such as wheat, requires between 2550 m3 and 3400 m3 of water annually for a single hectare of land (Berdai et al., 2011). Assuming the water for irrigating wheat was produced at the minimum cost for a typical largescale desalination process, the cost to irrigate a hectare of grain would range from $1147.50 to $1530 per hectare annually (El-Ghzizel et al., 2021). However, the grain harvested from that hectare is limited to an average 1.6 metric tons, to be sold at an average price of $325 (Fardaoussi, 2023). The cost of desalination causes losses of $627 to $1010 per hectare annually. If desalination processes continue to incur such economic losses, in addition to other noted consequences, its effectiveness as a solution to water scarcity must be reconsidered. Contemplating the efficiency of desalination implementation then poses a greater question: What other solutions exist to address Morocco’s water scarcity? A technological alternative The costs of implementing desalination in Morocco inherently raise concerns over the viability of desalination solutions with limited economic benefits. The unease regarding the consequences is not unique to Morocco, as the topic of water desalination solutions has become a worldwide discussion. In response to similar proposals for desalination plants, communities have protested, promoting another alternative: wastewater recycling. Among many ideas to address water scarcity, wastewater recycling is a solution presenting significant advantages worth the country’s exploration. Orange County, California, provides a modern comparison between the two technologies following the recent pushback against a proposed desalination plant. Although state administration and companies point to the apparent benefits of desalination, the Orange County community has referenced the drastic impacts on the environment and cost of implementation while cheaper and more environmentally safe options exist. Specifically, Orange County has cited its historic use of wastewater recycling. Recycled water is generated through an intensified wastewater treatment process followed by retention in aquifers and enhanced by reverse osmosis processes at a final water treatment facility (Reinhart, 2023). By implementing this process, Orange County has been able to not only avoid harm to marine life and high price increases but also achieve a range of other benefits. Because wastewater recycling begins with waste from industries, agriculture, or public disposal, there is a certain “yuck factor” associated with allowing the final effluent to be redistributed for use. To combat such concerns, the quality of the wastewater recycling process is heightened, producing water almost as clean as distilled water, thereby helping to remove the public’s concerns. For Morocco, the ability of societal perceptions to incentivize greater water standards would address the quality concerns in implementing supply solutions. Beyond solving multiple water distribution issues with a single, lower-cost process, recycling wastewater also presents an opportunity to mitigate saltwater intrusion, a growing concern in coastal countries like Morocco. Saltwater intrusion, an issue characterized by the contamination of groundwater aquifers with seawater, occurs as a result of overconsumption and depletion of an aquifer. Because wastewater recycling makes use of and refills the depleted aquifers, the potential for saltwater intrusion would be mitigated (Reinhart, 2023). A demand management issue By implementing either desalination plants or proposed water recycling processes, Morocco ultimately can address its water scarcity crisis at the physical level. However, looking forward, Morocco must also balance technological solutions with sustainable programs and policies that focus on reducing water demand. Such management efforts need to counter perceptions that increased supply negates the need to conserve, a trend often characterized as the rebound effect (Taheripour et al., 2020). Serious consideration must also be given to current water subsidy programs that expand, rather than conserve, consumption levels. One mechanism for inducing wider acceptance of the necessity of water conservation efforts is expanded public education initiatives. The rebound effect Morocco currently intends to substantially expand the country’s desalination processes, an “increased supply” approach. Traditionally, communities experiencing elevated water stress have long practiced methods of rationing that limit water consumption. For example, in Saharan regions such as Laayoune, native groups restricted potable water use to ingestion-related purposes. While conserving potable water, the native groups opted for using higher-salinity,
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